Paul's letter to Galatians attests to a vigorous conflict between the apostle and certain rival missionaries who insisted that Gentile Christians must be circumcised and must adhere to the Law of Moses. While Paul's vehement self-defense was apparently successful at that time in Galatia, the opposition was not silenced. Again and again in the writings of the church fathers, we hear of Jewish-Christian groups who were incensed by Paul's strictures against circumcision and the law and who refused to acknowledge the authority of his writings. The Elkesaites were one such group, who appear to have traced their origin to a prophet named Elkesai (fl. IOI). According to Origen (cited in Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 6.38), they rejected Paul entirely. It is ironic that Mani (216-276), the founder of Manichaeism, grew up in this baptismal sect. At the age of twenty-four, he received his heavenly call, became "an apostle of light," was expelled from the Elkesaites, and began to spread "the religion of light" with Pauline missionary zeal. Like Paul, Mani typically referred to himself as an "apostle of Jesus Christ."
The precise nature of the Jewish-Christian groups is as difficult to determine as is the precise character of those earlier opponents in Galatia. The most important of them are called Epionites, from the Semitic word for "poor," and on the basis of pa**ages such as Romans 15:26 and Galatians 2:10 they have been identified as descendants of the original disciples in Jerusalem.1 That is improbable, although it is clear that some of the Ebionites themselves labored to establish such a connection in the second and third centuries.2 The orthodox heresiologists cla**ified the Ebionites with the Gnostics. While that guilt-by-a**ociation is to be taken with a grain of salt, it is true that the groups we know most about were quite syncretistic. The Jewishness of the group that produced the Kerygmata Petrou excerpted below, for instance, would seem bizarre from the perspective of rabbinic Judaism; it could more readily be compared with such esoteric groups as the Essenes.3
Not surprisingly, the picture of Paul represented by these sources is a very flat caricature.4 The originators of these traditions seem to have had no substantial information about Paul. The main points are drawn from the letters and Acts. Stories are concocted, apparently, out of thin air (as in The Ascents of James) or adapted from existing legends (as in the curious story of Paul's attack on James, which has some connection with the legend of James' martyrdom recounted by Hegesippus5). Even on the central point of contention, Paul rejection of the law, there is no clarity. The Jewish-Christian groups had, of course, no interest in repeating the subtleties of Paurs argument; Paul's supporters had trouble enough with those. In fact there is little indication that specifically Pauline attitudes toward the law were under discussion. They attacked the Paul depicted by the slowly solidifying main stream of catholic Christianity, all now practically more or less free of the law, at least in its ceremonial aspects. The intricately nuanced argument of the Letter to the Romans was hardly understood by either side, nor was there much incentive to try.
AMBROSIASTER
[The Non-Apostle] (late fourth century)
Those Jewish believers who nevertheless continued to observe the law of
Moses denied that Paul was an apostle because he taught that it was no
longer necessary to be circumcised or to observe the sabbath. Even the
other apostles thought that he was teaching something different because
of this, and they denied that he was an apostle. But to the Corinthians
Paul was an apostle, because they had seen the signs of God's power in
him.
ANONYMOUS
[A False Proselyte] (third century?)
They [sc. the Ebionites] invoke other acts of apostles, in which are many
things full of impiety, which they use primarily to arm themselves against the truth. They also produce certain pilgrimages1 and expositibns, namely in "The Ascents of James," pretending that James spoke against the Temple and the sacrifices and against the fire of the altar, and many other things full of empty talk. So also, in the same place, they are not ashamed to slander Paul, using certain charges trumped up y the malice and error of their pseudo-apostles. They say that he was not only a citizen of Tarsus, as he himself admits and does not deny, but also of Greek origin, basing this on the pa**age in which Paul candidly says, "I am a Tarsan, citizen of no mean city" [Acts 21.:39]. Then they declare that he was a Greek, child of a Greek mother and a Greek father. He went up to Jerusalem, they say, and when he had spent some time there, he was seized with a pa**ion to marry a daughter of the priest. For this reason he became a proselyte and was circumcised. Then, when he failed to get the girl, he flew into a rage and wrote against circumcision and against Sabbath and Law.
EPIPHANIUS
[The Cerinthians] (ca. 375)
For they use the Gospel according to Matthew-in part, because of the
human genealogy, but not all of it-and they adduce this proof-text from
the Gospel: "It is enough for the disciple to be like his teacher" [Matt. 10:25]. What then, they say-Jesus was circumcised; be circumcised yourself. Christ lived according to the Law, they say, and you must do the same. Hence some of these, like men seized by poisonous d**, are convinced by the specious arguments based on Christ's having been circumcised. They break with Paul because he does not accept circumcision, but they also reject him because he said, "You who would be justified by the law have fallen away from grace" [Gal. 5:4] and "If you receive circumcision, Christ will be of no advantage to you" [Gal. 5:2].
ANONYMOUS
[Messenger of Satan] (ca. 200?)
The Letter of Peter to James
1 Peter to James the lord and bishop of the holy church. By the Father of all things through Jesus Christ (may you be) in peace always.
2 Knowing that you, my brother, eagerly pursue what is of common
benefit to us all, I request and implore you not to impart the books of my preachings which I am sending you to any of the Gentiles, nor even to a fellow Jew before he is tested. But if someone, upon examination, is found worthy, then to him you may hand them over, in the same way as Moses handed on (the tradition) to the seventy who succeeded to his chair.
3 Because of this, the fruit of his precaution is apparent until the present. For his fellow nationals everywhere hold to the same rule of monotheism and the same moral constitution, since they cannot be led by the ambiguities of scripture to adopt any other viewpoint.
4 Rather they try to correct the disagreements of the scriptures according to the norm handed down to them, in case anyone who chances not to know the traditions should be shocked by the ambiguous statements of the prophets.
5 For this reason they permit no one to teach until he has learned how the scriptures ought to be used. Thus among them there is one God, one Law, one Hope.
6 In order then that the same situation may obtain among us, hand over the books of my preachings to our seventy brothers with similar secrecy, that they may prepare those who want to take up the office of teacher.
7 Otherwise, if this is not done, our word of truth will be divided into many opinions. It is not as a prophet that I know this; rather I already see the beginning of this evil.
8 For some of those of Gentile origin have rejected my lawful proclamation, accepting rather a lawless and silly teaching of "the enemy."6
9 And even while I am still alive some have undertaken to distort my words, by certain intricate interpretations, into an abolition of the law, as if I myself thought such a thing, but did not preach it openly-God forbid!
10 For to take such a position is to act against the Law of God which was spoken through Moses and whose eternal endurance was attested by our Lord. For he said: "Heaven and earth will pa** away; not an iota, not a dot, will pa** from the law."
11 And he said this, "that everything might come to pa**."7 But these people who have my mind at their disposal, I know not how, undertake to interpret the words which they heard from me more intelligently than I who spoke them. They tell those who are taking instruction from them that this is my opinion-something I never dreamed of.
12 if they dare to fabricate this kind of lies while I am still alive, how much more will they dare to do who come after me?
* * *
(Homily II, 16-17)
16 As in the beginning God, who is one, created first the heaven, then the earth, like a right and left hand, so he also arranged all the pairs in sequence. In the case of men, however, he no longer does this, but reverses all the pairs.
2 For while from him the first things are better, the second
inferior, in the case of men we find the opposite: the first things are worse, the second better.
3 Thus from Adam, who was made in the image of God, came first the unjust Cain, second the just Abel.
4 Again, from the one whom you call Deucalion symbols of two spirits were sent forth, an impure and a pure, that is the black raven and the white dove second.
5 And from the founder of our nation, Abraham, two different ones8 were born, first Ishmael, then Isaac who was blessed by God.
6 In the same way again two issued from Isaac, Esau the impious and Jacob the pious.
7 Thus in order came first, as firstborn in the world, the High Priest [sc. Aaron], then the Lawgiver [sc. Moses].
17 In the same way-for the pair pertaining to Elijah, which ought to come
(next), was deliberately postponed until another time, to take it up according to plan at another, appropriate moment-
2 therefore he who is "among those born of women"9 came first, then he who is among the sons of men appeared second.
3 By following this sequence anyone can understand to whom "Simon" [i.e., Paul] belongs, who first went to the Gentiles, before me, and to whom I [sc. Peter] belong, who came after him, appearing as light after darkness, as knowledge after ignorance, as healing after sickness.
4 Thus, as the True Prophet told us, first a false gospel must come through a certain deceiver, and then, after the destruction of the holy place, a true gospel must be propagated secretly in order to rectify
the existing heresies.
* * *
(Homily XI, 35, 3-6)
35 * * *
3 Our Lord and Prophet who commissioned us explained to us how the evil one, having disputed with him without success for forty days, promised to send apostles from his retinue for the purpose of deception.
4 Therefore remember above all not to receive any apostle or prophet or teacher who has not first presented his gospel to James-who is called the brother of the Lord and to whom the direction of the church of the Hebrews in Jerusalem was entrusted-and comes to you with witnesses.10
5 Otherwise the wickedness that disputed with the Lord for forty days and could do nothing, and which later "fell like lightning from heaven" to earth,11 would send against you a herald, as now he has sent "Simon" against us, preaching, under pretext of the truth, in the name of our Lord,12 but actually sowing error.
6 For this reason the one who commissioned us said, "Many shall come to you in sheep's clothing, but inwardly they are ravenous wolves; by their fruits you shall know them."13
(Homily XVII, 13-19)
* * *
13 When "Simon" heard this, he interrupted [Peter] to say, "* * *.You a**ert that you thoroughly understand your teacher's concerns because, in his physical presence, you saw and heard him directly, but no one else could gain such understanding by means of a dream or a vision.
2 But I shall show that this is false. One who hears something directly cannot be quite certain about what was said, for the mind must consider whether, being merely human, he has been deceived by the sense impression. But the vision, by the very act of appearing, presents its own proof to the seer that it is divine. First give me an answer to this.”
14 And Peter said, "* * *
3 The prophet, once he has proved that he is a prophet, is infallibly believed in the matters which are directly spoken by him. Also, when his truthfulness has been previously recognized, he can give answers to the disciple, However the latter may wish to examine and interrogate him. But one who puts his trust in a vision or an apparition or dream is in a precarious position, for he does not know what it is he is trusting.
4 For it is possible that it is an evil demon or a deceitful spirit, pretending in the speeches to be what he is not.
5 Then if anyone should wish to inquire who it was who spoke, he could say of himself whatever he chose. Thus, like an evil flash of lightning,14 he stays as long as he chooses and then vanishes, not remaining with the inquirer long enough to answer his questions. * * *"
16 And Peter said, "***We know***
2 that many idolaters and adulterers and all kinds of sinners have seen visions and true dreams, while others have seen appearances of demons. For I a**ert that it is not possible to see the incorporeal form of Father or Son, because mortal eyes are dazzled by the great light.
3 Therefore it is not because God is jealous, but because he is merciful that he remains invisible to flesh-oriented man. For no one who sees can survive.15
4 For the extraordinary light would dissolve the flesh of the beholder, unless the flesh were changed by the ineffable power of God into the nature of light, so that it could see the light-or unless the light-substance were changed into flesh, so that it could be seen by flesh. For the Son alone is able to see the Father without being transformed. The case of the righteous is different: in the resurrection of the dead, when their bodies, changed into light, become like angels, then they will be able to see. Finally, even if an angel is sent to appear to a man, he is changed into flesh, that he can be Seen by flesh. For no one can see the incorporeal power of the Son or even of an angel. But if someone sees a vision, let him understand this to be an evil demon.
17 But it is obvious that impious people also see true visions and dreams, and I can prove it from scripture [The cases of Abimelech (Gen. 20:3 ff.), the Egyptian Pharaoh (Gen. 41), and Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 2) are adduced.] * * *
5 Thus the fact that one sees visions and dreams and apparitions by no means a**ures that he is a religious person. Father, to the pure and innate religious mind the truth gushes up, not eagerly courted by a dream, but granted to the good by intelligence.
18 It was in this way that the Son was revealed to me by the Father. Therefore I know what the nature of revelation is, since I learned it myself. [The following pa**age discusses Peter's Confession, as recounted in Matt. 16:13-16, then cites Num. 2:6-8.] * * *
6 You see how revelations of anger are through visions and dreams, while those to a friend are 'mouth to mouth,16 by sight and not by puzzles and visions and dreams, as they are to an enemy.
19 So even if our Jesus did appear in a dream to you, making himself known and conversing with you, he did so in anger, speaking to an opponent. That is why he spoke to you through visions and dreams-through
revelations which are external.
2 But can anyone be qualified by a vision to become a teacher? And if you say it is possible, then why did the Teacher remain for a whole year conversing with those who were awake?
3 How can we believe even your statement that he appeared to you? How could he have appeared to you, when your opinions are opposed to his teaching?
4 No, if you were visited and taught by him for a single hour and thus became an apostle, proclaim his utterances, interpret his teachings, love his apostles-and do not strive against me, who was his companion. For you have 'opposed' me,17 the firm Rock, foundation of the church.18
5 If you were not an enemy, you would not slander me and disparage what is preached by me, as if I were obviously 'condemned'19 and you were approved.
6 If you call me 'condemned,' you are accusing God who revealed the Christ to me, and are opposing the one who blessed me because of the revelation.
7 Rather, if you really want to work together for the truth, first learn from us what we learned from him. Then, having become a disciple of the truth, become our fellow-worker."
ANONYMOUS
[Persecutor of the Faith] (date unknown)
[The preceding chapters describe a debate in Jerusalem between the apostles and the leaders of each of the Jewish sects.] * * *And when matters were at that point that they should come and be baptized, some one of our enemies,20 entering the temple with a few men, began to cry out, and to say, What mean ye, O men of Israel? Why are you so easily hurried on? Why are ye led headlong by most miserable men, who are deceived by a magician?' While he was thus speaking, and adding more to the same effect, and while James the bishop was refuting him, he began to excite the people and to raise a tumult, so that the people might not be able to hear what was said. Therefore he began to drive all into confusion with shouting, and to undo what had been arranged with much labour, and at the same time to reproach the priests, and to enrage them with revilings and abuse, and like a madman, to excite every one to murder, saying, 'What do ye? Why do ye hesitate? Oh, sluggish and inert, why do we not lay hands upon them, and pull all these fellows to pieces?' When he had said this, he first, seizing a strong brand from the altar, set the example of smiting. Then others also, seeing him, were carried away with like madness. Then ensued a tumult on either side, of the beating and the beaten. Much blood is shed; there is a confused flight, in the midst of which that enemy attacked James, and threw him headlong from the top of the steps; and supposing him to be dead, he cared not to inflict further violence upon him.
But our friends lifted him up, for they were both more numerous and
more powerful than the others; but, from their fear of God, they rather
suffered themselves to be k**ed by an inferior force, than they would k** others. But when the evening came the priests shut up the temple, and we returned to the house of James, and spent the night there in prayer. Then before daylight we went down to Jericho, to the number of 5000 men. Then after three days one of the brethren came to us from Gamaliel, whom we mentioned before, bringing us secret tidings that that enemy had received a commission from Caiaphas, the chief priest, that he should arrest all who believed in Jesus, and should go to Damascus with his letters, and that there also, employing the help of the unbelievers, he should make havoc among the faithful; and that he was hastening to Damascus chiefly on this account, because he believed that Peter had fled thither. Apd about thirty days thereafter he stopped on his way while pa**ing through Jericho going to Damascus. At that time we were absent, having gone out to the sepulchres of two brethren which were whitened of themselves every year, by which miracle the fury of many against us was restrained, because they saw that our brethren were had in remembrance before God. * * *
...
Notes:
1. An important element in F. C. Baur's scheme of early Christian development (see below pp. 399-408), revived in the twentieth century by H.J. Schoeps, Theologie und Geschichte des Judenchristentums (Tubingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1949); Jewish Christianity: Factional Disputes in the Early Church (Philadelphia: Fortress, I 969); S. G. F. Brandon, The Fall of Jerusalem and the Christian Church (London: SPCK, I 951); and others.
2. See Leander E. Keck, ''The Poor among the Saints in Jewish Christianity," ZNW 57 (1966): 54-78.
3. On the history of Jewish-Christianity, see, besides the works cited above, Jean Danielou, Theology of Jewish Christianity (Chicago, I 964), Marcel Simon, Recherches d'histoire judeo-chretienne (Paris: Mouton, 1962) and Verus Israel (New York: Oxford, 1986), and A. F. J. Klijn and G. J. Reinink, Patristic Evidence for Jewish-Christian Sects (Leiden: Brill, 1973).
4. See esp. Gerd Ludemann, Opposition to Paul in Jewish Christianity (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1989).
5. See below, and compare Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History. 2.23.4-18; cf. Josephus, Ant. 20.200.
6. "The enemy," lit., "the hostile man"; the phrase is probably suggested by Matt. 13:25, 28. As Recog. 1, 71:3 (below) makes plain, Paul was meant in the original version of The Preachings.
7. Cf. Matt. 5:18, where however the last clause reads "until everything comes to pa**."
8. Accepting Wieseler's emendation; the text reads "two first."
9. Cf. Matt. 11.11 = Luke 7.28.
10. So the Greek; the parallel pa**age in the Recognitions reads "testimonials." The Recognitions pa**age adds, in a sentence that may well go back to the original Kerygmata, a comparison of the twelve apostles with the twelve months of the year, thus tacitly declaring any "thirteenth" claimant to apostolicity, such as Paul, to be inauthentic.
11. Luke 10:18; probably understood here as an allusion to Paul's Damascus vision: see Acts 9:3 and below, Hom. XVII, 14,5.
12. This phrase shows that Simon Magus could not have been meant by the original Kerygmata, for Simon, who regarded himself as a manifestation of the Supreme Power, did not preach "in the name of (the) Lord."
13. Matt. 7:15 f.
14. This may be another allusion to Acts 9:3; see above, Hom. XI, 35, 5.
15.Cf. Exod. 33:20.
16. Exod. 33:11; Num. 12:8; Deut. 34:10.
17. Cf. Gal. 2: 11.
18. Cf. Matt. 16:18.
19. Gal. 2: 11.
20. This "enemy" is Paul. The same phrase is applied to him in the Letter of Peter to James (above).